Battle record of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington

Wellington at Waterloo, by Robert Alexander Hillingford
Wellington at Waterloo by Robert Alexander Hillingford
English Wars of 1801–1814
First invasion of Portugal 1807–08
Spanish uprising 1808
Napoleon's campaign 1808–09
Second invasion of Portugal and northern Spain, 1809
Castile and Andalusia 1809–10
Aragón and northeast Spain 1809–14
Third Invasion of Portugal 1810–11
Siege of Cádiz 1810–12
Castile and northern Spain 1811–13
Vitoria and the Pyrenees 1813–14
Map of British Peninsular War battles, 1808–14
Map of British Peninsular War battles, 1808–14

Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (1 May 1769 – 14 September 1852), was one of the leading British military and political figures of the 19th century. Often referred to as "The Duke of Wellington", he led a successful military career during the Napoleonic Wars.

Starting his career in 1787 as a commissioned officer in the infantry, before seeing his first action in the Flanders Campaign, Wellesley rose in rank by purchasing his first four commissions, as was common practice in the British Army for wealthy officers.[1] His continued rise in status and fame thereafter was the result of his ability as a commander.

Between 1794 and 1815 Wellesley participated in a number of military campaigns where he achieved tactical, strategic, and decisive victories in India and across six countries of western Europe.[2] He faced and defeated many of Napoleon's marshals as the commander in chief of the Anglo-Portuguese Army during the Peninsular War, but his best known battle was at Waterloo in 1815 where he led an Anglo-Allied force to a decisive victory over Napoleon I. It was to be his last battle.

Military career

There is speculation by historians and biographers about how many battles Wellington actually participated in during his career. Military historian, Ian Fletcher, identifies twenty-four major battles and sieges involving the British Army between 1808 and 1815 with Wellington in command of seventeen.[3] Military historian, Mark Adkin, comments that "Wellington had fought in some twenty-four battles and sieges prior to Waterloo".[4] Although this is easily contested, the precise number of battles may never be known. It can be established from records, dispatches and reports dating back to the events that he was present in at least fifty separate military actions, including an assortment of meeting engagements, pitched battles, sieges, skirmishes and minor engagements, throughout his career. He also ordered countless other remote engagements mostly whilst serving in the Napoleonic Wars, during which Britain played a major role in securing Europe against French occupation, between 1805 and 1815.[5]

Commissions and promotions

Wellington was gazetted ensign on 7 March 1787, in the 73rd (Highland) Regiment of Foot, and became an aide-de-camp in October.[6] He purchased his commission to lieutenant on 25 December 1787, in the 76th Regiment.[6] As a junior officer he transferred to the 41st Regiment soon after to avoid duty in the East Indies,[6] and in June 1789 transferred again, to the 12th (Prince of Wales's) Light Dragoons cavalry regiment.[7] He obtained his commission to captain on 30 June 1791, in the 58th (Rutlandshire) Regiment, having served the regulation minimum of three years,[8] and again to major on 30 April 1793, in the 33rd (First Yorkshire West Riding) Regiment, having served six years.[9] He purchased his final commission to lieutenant-colonel on 30 September 1793,[10] at the age of 24.[11] From there on further promotion could only be attained through seniority, per Army Regulations.[12]

In September 1794, Wellesley experienced his first battle, against the French, at the Battle of Boxtel with the 33rd.[13] His promotion to colonel, on 3 May 1796, came by seniority, and in June he was sent with the 33rd to India.[14] In 1799 he fought in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, commanding three victorious actions with the British East India Company. After winning the war, and serving as governor of Seringapatam and Mysore, Wellesley was promoted to major-general on 29 April 1802, although he did not receive the news until September.[15] Whilst in India he wrote of his regiment "I have commanded them for nearly ten years during which I have scarcely been away from them and I have always found them to be the quietest and best behaved body of men in the army."[16]

Wellesley gained further success in India during the Second Anglo-Maratha War of 1803–05, and in 1806 Wellesley succeeded the Marquis Cornwallis as Colonel of the 33rd, which he held until 1813. By 1807, Napoleon's attempt to prevent continental Europe from trading with Britain had resulted in all but Sweden, Denmark and Portugal closing their ports. In June 1807, Napoleon pressured Denmark further, resulting in the British naval bombardment of Copenhagen and seizure of the Danish fleet to prevent it from falling into French hands.[17] Wellesley's brief role against Danish land forces at the Battle of Køge helped secure Denmark. Wellesley later disapproved of the bombardment, saying "we might have taken the capital with greater ease".[18] He was promoted to lieutenant-general on 25 April 1808,[19] and in June was given command of 9,000 men set to invade revolutionary Spanish America.[20] But in 1807, Napoleon had invaded Portugal, via Spain, intent on preventing its continued trade with Britain, but replaced the Spanish royal family with his own brother, Joseph Bonaparte, in May 1808.[21] In Madrid, the Spanish resisted the French occupation, leading the Portuguese to call on British support. In August 1808, Wellesley entered the Peninsular War with 15,000 men.[22]

When the head of the British forces in the Peninsula, Sir John Moore, was killed in the Battle of Corunna in January 1809,[23] the British Army having been driven from the Peninsula in disarray,[24] Wellington sent the Secretary of War a memo insisting that a British force of no less than 30,000 British troops should be sent to defend and rebuild Portugal's military strength.[25] His proposal was approved and he re-embarked to Lisbon on 16 April 1809,[26] where he was appointed to head of the forces in Portugal – a motion supported by the government and Prince Regent George IV, as Wellington did not hold seniority.[25]

On 31 July 1811, he was promoted to general, although it only applied in the Peninsula.[27] His final promotion to field marshal came on 21 June 1813, following his success at the Battle of Vitoria which had broken the remaining French hold in Spain.[28] Wellington was awarded with a Marshal's baton – partially designed by the Prince Regent himself – the first of its kind in the Britain Army.[27]

Allied commander

Wellington was appointed head of all British forces from April 1809,[29] following the death of Sir John Moore, and due to the second invasion of Portugal by the French he remained to continue the Peninsular War for a further five years, engaging the French armies across Portugal, Spain, and north into France until Napoleon's abdication in 1814.[30] He returned to Europe in 1815 appointed overall commander of the Anglo-Allied forces of the Seventh Coalition, better known as the Hundred Days, following Napoleon's escape from exile and attempt to retain power.[31]

Despite many battles to his name, over twenty-one years of duty, it would be shortly after the battle at Waterloo upon hearing of approximately 50,000 casualties dead or dying that he wept, saying "I hope to God I have fought my last battle".[32] It had been a close victory at such great cost that it broke his fighting spirit,[33] and marked the end of his long service overseas with a notable military career. He returned to British politics and became a leading statesman.[34] He was appointed Master-General of the Ordnance[35] (1819–27) and Commander-in-Chief of the Forces[36] (1827–28/1842–52), but Wellington did not fight again.

Generalship

Portrait of Wellesley, by Sir Thomas Lawrence
"Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington" by Sir Thomas Lawrence, 1814

Wellington's understanding of logistics was to prove valuable in leading an expeditionary force against the French invasion of Portugal and Spain.[37] He was adept at planning long marches through unknown territory, understanding that he not only had thousands of men to manage efficiently, but that a huge amount of supplies were required to adequately feed and sustain his army. Secure supply lines to the Portuguese coast were of vital importance if he was to maintain his ability to fight the French.[38]

In April 1809, Wellington returned to Portugal with 28,000 British and 16,000 Portuguese troops under his command – the French Army of Spain numbered 360,000.[39] Despite many French troops having been dispersed to garrisons across Spain or located to protect supply and communication lines,[39] even with the Portuguese Army and militia, and remnants of the Spanish Army and guerrillas to support him, Wellington faced overwhelming odds. Throughout the Peninsular War the number of soldiers enlisted in Britain rarely exceeded 40,000, though Wellington had some 57,000 British soldiers under his command at Vitoria in 1813. He also had the men of the King's German Legion (KGL) and the British-trained Portuguese Army[38] under his command. Many British politicians were opposed to the war in Europe and favoured withdrawal,[40] which hampered its will to muster a larger force to defeat Napoleon. This served in sharpening Wellington's awareness that a defensive strategy was essential, initially, to ensure the British Army survived.[40] At Waterloo, of his roughly 73,000 strong army, around 26,000 (36 percent) were British,[41] though this relatively low number was due to the majority of his Peninsular veterans being shipped elsewhere after Napoleon's first abdication, many being sent to North America to serve in the final months of the war against the United States.

Wellington faced armies formed from the disbanded French Grande Armée, once an overpowering force, which having conquered Europe and expanded the French Empire had been led by Napoleon and his marshals since 1804.[42] It had been reformed into multiple smaller and more mobile armies from October 1808. In the Peninsula the French were grouped into multiple armies, each operating chiefly in its own area, in order to secure Portugal and Spain.[43] These forces were commanded by French marshals, senior generals chosen for elevation by Napoleon himself. Though these armies were under the nomiminal command of Napoleon's brother, King Joseph Bonaparte, the marshals commanded their armies with a high degree of independence. Wellington arrived in Lisbon in 1809 with an army composed mostly of volunteers.[44][45] British troops were better trained than their French counterparts and were required to repeatedly practice firing with live rounds before encountering combat.[46] Napoleon only personally campaigned in Spain once, between October 1808 and January 1809,[47] taking most of his Guard and many élite troops with him when he left. After the disastrous failure of the invasion of Russia, Napoleon weakened his forces in Spain in early 1813 by redeploying many veteran troops from the Peninsula to Germany to shore up his losses. Subsequently, many of the remaining troops became a second line in quality, experience and equipment – some new recruits were often not French.[48]

Wellington's army consisted of four combat arms: Infantry, cavalry and artillery. Engineers also played a valuable role in the Peninsula, such as the building of the Lines of Torres Vedras – a defensive line of forts built to protect Lisbon[49] – and making preparations for any sieges throughout the war.[50] Wellington's main combat arm was his well-trained infantry. He never had more than 2,000 cavalry before 1812[51] and his cannons, although highly competent, were inferior to French guns in both number and quality.[51] It was with this force that Wellington aimed to defend Portugal until he took to an offensive strategy in 1812, beating the French at the Salamanca. He advanced on to Madrid, arriving on 12 August 1812 – Joseph Bonaparte had abandoned the capital after the defeat at Salamanca.[52]

Detail of a bronze relief panel, depicting the Battle of Waterloo, beneath Carlo Marochetti's statue of the Duke of Wellington, Glasgow

The Spanish government made Wellington commander-in-chief of all allied armies, providing an extra 21,000 Spanish troops after Salamanca.[52] Although not completely undefeated he never lost a major battle.[53] His greatest defeat came at the Siege of Burgos in 1812, where he had hoped to prevent French forces concentrating.[54] After losing 2,000 men and causing only 600 French casualties he was forced to raise the siege and retreat, calling it "the worst scrape I was ever in."[55] Retiring to winter quarters, where he received reinforcements that brought his regular army up to 75,000 men,[52] Wellington began his final offensive in June 1813. He advanced north, through the Pyrenees, and into France itself. The French were no longer fighting to keep Spain but to defend their own border.[52]

Ultimately, between the battles of Roliça (August 1808) and Toulouse (April 1814), the war against the French lasted for six years, with Wellington finally managing to drive the French from the Iberian Peninsula.[56] Shortly thereafter, on 12 April 1814, word reached Wellington that Napoleon had abdicated on 6 April.[57] The war on the Peninsula was over. Wellington and his army had marched over an estimated 6,000 miles (9,656 km)[58] and fought in many engagements through Portugal and Spain, the consequences of which helped bring the downfall of Napoleon, resulting in peace across Europe.[58]

Battle record

There are a large number of battles attributed to Wellington. Although many leave the impression that he was present or in command at those actions, it was sometimes the case that he entrusted other officers to engage the enemy, such as at remote locations, and that he could not have attended them all in person. Similarly, Wellington was not usually in command of rear guard actions, during advances or retreats, despite his army engaging in them often. Engagements where the lack of his presence is absolutely certain, or where his position is unconfirmed by records and accounts, are not included in his battle record.

Key to opponent flags
France
French First Republic
(1792–1804)		 France
First French Empire
(1804–1814/1815)		 Kingdom of Mysore
Kingdom of Mysore		 Maratha Empire
Maratha Empire		 Denmark
Denmark
Key to outcome

  *   Indicates a decisive victory

Date War Action Opponent Type Country Rank[59] Outcome Notes
15 Sep 1794 Flanders Campaign Battle of Boxtel France Battle Dutch Republic Lieutenant-Colonel Defeat [60][61]
27 Mar 1799 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Battle of Mallavelly Kingdom of Mysore Battle Kingdom of Mysore Colonel Victory [62]
5 Apr – 4 May 1799 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Battle of Seringapatam Kingdom of Mysore Siege Kingdom of Mysore Colonel Victory* [63]
6 Apr 1799 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Battle of Sultanpet Tope Kingdom of Mysore Battle Kingdom of Mysore Colonel First Battle: Defeat, Second Battle: Victory [64]
8–12 Aug 1803 Second Anglo-Maratha War Battle of Ahmednuggur Maratha Empire Siege Maratha, India Major-General Victory [65][66]
23 Sep 1803 Second Anglo-Maratha War Battle of Assaye Maratha Empire Battle Maratha, India Major-General Victory* [67]
28 Nov 1803 Second Anglo-Maratha War Battle of Argaon Maratha Empire Battle Maratha, India Major-General Victory [68]
15 Dec 1803 Second Anglo-Maratha War Siege of Gawilghur Maratha Empire Siege Maratha, India Major-General Victory [69]
29 Aug 1807 English Wars Battle of Køge[lower-alpha 1] Denmark Battle Denmark Major-General Victory* [18][70]
17 Aug 1808 Peninsular War Battle of Roliça France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory [71][72][73]
21 Aug 1808 Peninsular War Battle of Vimeiro France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory* [74][75][76]
10–11 May 1809 Peninsular War Battle of Grijó France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory [77]
12 May 1809 Peninsular War Second Battle of Porto[lower-alpha 2] France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory [79]
27 Jul 1809 Peninsular War Combat of Casa de Salinas[lower-alpha 3][80] France Skirmish Portugal Lieutenant-General Indecisive [81]
27–28 Jul 1809 Peninsular War Battle of Talavera France Battle Spain Lieutenant-General Victory [82][83]
27 Sep 1810 Peninsular War Battle of Bussaco France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory [84][85][86]
11 Mar 1811 Peninsular War Battle of Pombal France Skirmish Portugal Lieutenant-General Defeat [87]
12 Mar 1811 Peninsular War Battle of Redinha France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Defeat [88]
15 Mar 1811 Peninsular War Combat of Foz de Arouce France Skirmish Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory [89][90]
29 Mar 1811 Peninsular War Combat of Guarda France Skirmish Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory [91]
3 Apr 1811 Peninsular War Battle of Sabugal France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Victory [92][93]
3–5 May 1811 Peninsular War Battle of Fuentes de Oñoro France Battle Portugal Lieutenant-General Indecisive [94][95][96]
5 May – 16 Jun 1811 Peninsular War Second Siege of Badajoz[lower-alpha 4] France Siege Spain General Defeat [98][99]
25 Sep 1811 Peninsular War Combat of El Bodón France Skirmish Spain General Defeat [100][101]
27 Sep 1811 Peninsular War Combat of Aldea da Ponte France Skirmish Spain General Indecisive [102]
7–20 Jan 1812 Peninsular War Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo France Siege Spain General Victory [103][104][105]
16 Mar – 6 Apr 1812 Peninsular War Third Siege of Badajoz France Siege Spain General Victory [106][107][108]
17–27 Jun 1812 Peninsular War Siege of the Salamanca Forts France Siege Spain General Victory [109]
18 Jul 1812 Peninsular War Combat of Castrillo France Skirmish Spain General Victory [110]
22 Jul 1812 Peninsular War Battle of Salamanca France Battle Spain General Victory* [111][112]
19 Sep – 21 Oct 1812 Peninsular War Siege of Burgos France Siege Spain General Defeat [113][114]
25–29 Oct 1812 Peninsular War Battle of Tordesillas France Skirmish Spain General Defeat [115]
10–11 Nov 1812 Peninsular War Combat of Alba de Tormes France Skirmish Spain General Indecisive [116][117]
17 Nov 1812 Peninsular War Combat of Huebra, San Muñoz France Skirmish Spain General Indecisive [118]
21 Jun 1813 Peninsular War Battle of Vitoria France Battle Spain General Victory* [119][120][121]
7 Jul – 8 Sep 1813 Peninsular War Siege of San Sebastian[lower-alpha 5] France Siege Spain Field Marshal Victory [124][125][126][127]
26–28 Jul 1813 Peninsular War First Battle of Sorauren[lower-alpha 6] France Battle Spain Field Marshal Victory [128]
28–30 Jul 1813 Peninsular War Second Battle of Sorauren France Battle Spain Field Marshal Victory [129][130]
2 Aug 1813 Peninsular War Combat of Echalar France Skirmish Spain Field Marshal Victory [131][132]
7 Oct 1813 Peninsular War Battle of the Bidassoa France Battle France Field Marshal Victory [133]
10 Nov 1813 Peninsular War Battle of Nivelle France Battle France Field Marshal Victory [134][135]
9–12 Dec 1813 Peninsular War Battle of the Nive France Battle France Field Marshal Victory [136][137]
15 Feb 1814 Peninsular War Battle of Garris France Battle France Field Marshal Victory [138]
27 Feb 1814 Peninsular War Battle of Orthez France Battle France Field Marshal Victory [139][140]
20 Mar 1814 Peninsular War Battle of Tarbes France Battle France Field Marshal Victory [141][142][143][144]
8 Apr 1814 Peninsular War Combat of Croix d'Orade France Skirmish France Field Marshal Victory [145][146]
10 Apr 1814 Peninsular War Battle of Toulouse France Battle France Field Marshal Indecisive [147][148]
16 Jun 1815 Hundred Days Battle of Quatre Bras France Battle Belgium Field Marshal Indecisive [149][150][151]
18 Jun 1815 Hundred Days Battle of Waterloo France Battle Belgium Field Marshal Victory* [152][153][154][155][156]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Part of the Battle of Copenhagen.[70]
  2. ↑ The First Battle of Porto took place on 28 March 1809 when the French initially seized the city from Anglo-Portuguese forces.[78]
  3. ↑ The skirmish at Casa de Salinas was a preliminary combat action fought prior to the Battle of Talavera.
  4. ↑ The First Siege of Badajoz took place on 26 January – 11 March 1811 when the French initially besieged the Spanish town.[97]
  5. ↑ Two attempts were made to storm San Sebastian, in 1813. The first, on 25 July, Wellington was present at to oversee this attempt,[122] but he did not attend the second attempt on 31 August – evident from his dispatches.[123]
  6. ↑ Part of the Battle of the Pyrenees.[128]

Notes

  1. ↑ Holmes, pp. 17–19, 21.
  2. ↑ Morgan, pp. 95–116. See: Timeline of Wellington & British Campaigns.
  3. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 17–117.
  4. ↑ Adkin, p. 92.
  5. ↑ Smith, pp. 201–560.
  6. 1 2 3 Holmes, p. 21.
  7. ↑ Holmes, p. 22.
  8. ↑ Holmes, p. 18, 24.
  9. ↑ Holmes, p. 18, 25.
  10. ↑ Holmes, p. 28.
  11. ↑ Savoury & Isles, p. 4.
  12. ↑ Holmes, p. 19.
  13. ↑ Holmes, p. 30.
  14. ↑ Holmes, p. 34.
  15. ↑ Holmes, p. 69.
  16. ↑ Savoury & Isles, p. 5.
  17. ↑ Rothenberg, pp. 114–115.
  18. 1 2 Holmes, pp. 100–101.
  19. ↑ Holmes, p. 102.
  20. ↑ Longford, p. 138.
  21. ↑ Rothenberg, pp. 113–114.
  22. ↑ Holmes, pp. 112–121.
  23. ↑ Holmes, p. 125.
  24. ↑ Fletcher (2005), p. 30.
  25. 1 2 Holmes, pp. 125–126.
  26. ↑ Holmes, p. 130.
  27. 1 2 Holmes, p. 189.
  28. ↑ Holmes, p. 187.
  29. ↑ Holmes, p. 129.
  30. ↑ Holmes, pp. 193–194.
  31. ↑ Holmes, pp. 208–210.
  32. ↑ Wellesley, Jane (2004). "The Duke of Wellington". Association of Friends of the Waterloo Committee. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
  33. ↑ Holmes, p. 254.
  34. ↑ Holmes, pp. 270–292.
  35. ↑ Holmes, pp. 157–158.
  36. ↑ Holmes, pp. 268–269, 291.
  37. ↑ Holmes, p. 88.
  38. 1 2 Rothenberg, p. 136.
  39. 1 2 Rothenberg, p. 139.
  40. 1 2 Rothenberg, pp. 141–142.
  41. ↑ Adkin, p. 37.
  42. ↑ Rothenberg, pp. 70–74.
  43. ↑ Barnett, pp. 148–149.
  44. ↑ Fletcher (2005), p. 15.
  45. ↑ Longford, pp. 312–322.
  46. ↑ Holmes, p. 48.
  47. ↑ Barnett, pp. 148–150.
  48. ↑ Griffith, pp. 43–44.
  49. ↑ Rothenberg, pp. 140–143.
  50. ↑ Napier (1835–40), vol. XII, pp. 159–160.
  51. 1 2 Rothenberg, p. 137.
  52. 1 2 3 4 Rothenberg, pp. 141–147.
  53. ↑ Holmes, p. xv.
  54. ↑ Fletcher (2003), p. 4.
  55. ↑ Holmes, pp. 170–171.
  56. ↑ Rothenberg, p. 151.
  57. ↑ Fletcher (2005), p. 106.
  58. 1 2 Fletcher (2005), p. 107.
  59. ↑ Roberts, pp. xvi–xxvii. See: Timelines of Napoleon & Wellington.
  60. ↑ Corrigan, pp. 30–31.
  61. ↑ Smith, p. 90.
  62. ↑ Burton, p. 15.
  63. ↑ Burton, pp. 19–25.
  64. ↑ Burton, pp. 16–19.
  65. ↑ Burton, p. 53–56.
  66. ↑ Thornton, p. 15.
  67. ↑ Millar (2006)
  68. ↑ Burton, pp. 76–81.
  69. ↑ Burton, pp. 81–86.
  70. 1 2 Smith, p. 254.
  71. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 16–19.
  72. ↑ Smith, p. 266.
  73. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 44–45.
  74. ↑ Chartrand (2001a)
  75. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 19–24.
  76. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 45–46.
  77. ↑ Smith, p. 301.
  78. ↑ Jaques, p. 754.
  79. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 32–34.
  80. ↑ Smith, p. 327.
  81. ↑ Rickard, J. (14 March 2008). "Combat of Casa de Salinas". historyofwar.org. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  82. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 34–39.
  83. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 57–58.
  84. ↑ Chartrand (2001b)
  85. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 39–44.
  86. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 58–59.
  87. ↑ Jaques, 807–808.
  88. ↑ Jaques, p. 846.
  89. ↑ Jaques, p. 370.
  90. ↑ Rickard, J. (10 April 2008). "Combat of Foz de Arouce". historyofwar.org. Archived from the original on 9 June 2011. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
  91. ↑ Rickard, J. (16 April 2008). "Combat of Guarda". historyofwar.org. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  92. ↑ Chandler, p. 387.
  93. ↑ Jaques, p. 873.
  94. ↑ Chartrand (2001c)
  95. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 48–52.
  96. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 60–61.
  97. ↑ Fremont-Barnes, p. 103.
  98. ↑ Fremont-Barnes, pp. 103–104.
  99. ↑ Rickard, J. (4 April 2008). "Second British Siege of Badajoz". historyofwar.org. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
  100. ↑ Morgan, p. 109.
  101. ↑ Rickard, J. (5 June 2008). "Combat of El Bodón". historyofwar.org. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  102. ↑ Rickard, J. (5 June 2008). "Combat of Aldea da Ponte". historyofwar.org. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  103. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 62–65.
  104. ↑ Fremont-Barnes, pp. 243–244.
  105. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 63–64.
  106. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 65–70.
  107. ↑ Fremont-Barnes, pp. 104–106.
  108. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 64–65.
  109. ↑ Fletcher & Younghusband, p. 22.
  110. ↑ Jaques, p. 212.
  111. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 72–77.
  112. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 66–67.
  113. ↑ Rothenberg, p. 147.
  114. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 75–75.
  115. ↑ Napier (1835–40), vol. III, p. XXIV.
  116. ↑ Jaques, p. 23.
  117. ↑ Smith, p. 400.
  118. ↑ Jaques, p. 460.
  119. ↑ Fletcher (1996)
  120. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 78–83.
  121. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 82–83.
  122. ↑ Wellesley & Gurwood (ed), Vol. X, p. 576.
  123. ↑ Wellesley & Gurwood (ed), Vol. XI, pp. 61–71.
  124. ↑ Chandler, pp. 399–400.
  125. ↑ Fremont-Barnes, p. 867–868.
  126. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 89–92.
  127. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 83–84.
  128. 1 2 Fletcher (2005), pp. 84–89.
  129. ↑ Chandler, pp. 415–416.
  130. ↑ Smith, p. 433.
  131. ↑ Jaques, p. 324.
  132. ↑ Riley, p. 311.
  133. ↑ Fremont-Barnes, p. 148.
  134. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 93–96.
  135. ↑ Sutherland, p. 91.
  136. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 96–99.
  137. ↑ Sutherland, p. 92.
  138. ↑ Haythornthwaite, pp. 256–257.
  139. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 100–102.
  140. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 96–97.
  141. ↑ Urban, pp. 245–248.
  142. ↑ Chandler, p. 436.
  143. ↑ Ayrton & Taylor (2008)
  144. ↑ Moore, Richard. "Battle of Tarbes". The 95th Rifles & Royal Horse Artillery. Archived from the original on 23 July 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2011.
  145. ↑ Jaques, p. 272.
  146. ↑ Napier (1852), vol. IV, p. 417.
  147. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 103–108.
  148. ↑ Sutherland, p. 103.
  149. ↑ Rothenberg, pp. 198–202.
  150. ↑ Smith, pp. 536–538.
  151. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 105–106.
  152. ↑ Adkin (2001)
  153. ↑ Howarth (1997)
  154. ↑ Fletcher (2005), pp. 108–117.
  155. ↑ Smith, pp. 538–548.
  156. ↑ Sutherland, pp. 106–109.

References

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Further reading

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