One-man operation

"Oneman" redirects here. For the British DJ, see DJ Oneman.
A freight train driver on a one-manned DB Schenker Rail train in Sweden
A platform mirror for driver-only operation at Vykhino station, Moscow Metro in Russia

One-man operation (OMO), also known as driver-only operation (DOO), one person operation (OPO), single person train operation (SPTO),[1] or one-person train operation (OPTO),[2] is operation of a train, bus, or tram by the driver or motorman alone, without a conductor.[3]

On one-man operated passenger trains the driver must be able to see the whole train to make sure that all the doors are safe for departure. On curved platforms a CCTV system, mirror or station dispatch staff are required.[4][5][6][7]

Although extra infrastructure such as cameras and mirrors might require additional investment, one-man operation is usually faster and cheaper to implement than automatic train operation, requiring a smaller investment in, for example, platform intruder detection systems and track protection (fencing, bridge-caging, CCTV etc.).[8] In some cases, one-man operation can be seen as an intermediate step towards automatic train operation.[8]

While European freight trains are normally one-man operated, the larger North American freight trains are almost exclusively manned by an engineer as well as a conductor.[9]

While one-man operation is popular and on the rise among the train operating companies as it reduces the amount of crew required and correspondingly reduces costs, it is for that reason controversial and is often strongly opposed by trade unions, often claiming that it is an unsafe practice.[10][11]

Passenger trains

History

A Birney streetcar, one of the first public transport vehicles designed specifically for one-man operation

One of the first examples of a public transport vehicle that was developed specifically for one-man operation is the Birney streetcar introduced in the United States in 1916.[12] The Birney was pre-equipped with one of the most important safety devices for enabling one-man operation - the dead man's switch.[12] At the time (and to a certain extent also today) one of the most cited arguments against one-man operation was the safety risks to passengers and bystanders if the driver fell ill.[12][13] The dead man switch ensured that the tram would stop in the event of an incapacitated driver.[12] For this reason, the Birneys were also called "safety cars".[12] Another critical feature of the Birney in dealing with safety issues from the critics of one-man operation was its compact size which eased the drivers view of the road and reducing the number of doors to a single one.[12]

In the US, regardless of various technological solutions to resolve the safety issues of one-man operation, there was consistent resistance towards one-man operation among the drivers and conductors of the streetcars.[12] Whenever the workforce was well-organized in unions - with was the case in around half of all cities with streetcar companies - any proposal of one-man operation would be generally be severely challenged, regardless of whether or not the streetcar company was in serious financial difficulties.[12] In many cities, it took a municipal ordinance to authorize one-man operation, thus also politicizing the subject.[12] The end result of all this was typically strikes and other industrial actions whenever one-man operation was implemented.[12]

While the Birney was one of the first public transport vehicles designed for one-man operation, it was not the first public transport vehicle to be equipped with a dead man's switch. In 1903, the Metropolitan District Railway equipped two of their A Stock trains with a dead man's switch.[14] The dead man's switch was introduced so that one man could operate in the driving cab on his own, which became standard for all train companies operating the London Underground in 1908.[14] Even though this did not make the trains one-man operated - seeing as the trains were still manned with a guard - it was one of the first steps towards it.

Besides the dead man's switch, the electrification and dieselisation of railways also helped reduce the required staff in the locomotive to a sole driver - as diesel and electric traction does not require a fireman to shovel coal into a boiler.[14]

On the London Underground, the use of multiple units ended the need for a second crewman in the driver's cab to assist with coupling at the terminal train station.[14]

Australia

The suburban railway network of Melbourne, Australia (currently operated by the train operating company Metro Trains Melbourne) started one-man operation in 1993. By 22 November 1995, all Metro Trains Melbourne trains were one-man operated.[15]

Canada

Toronto Transit Commission

Each Toronto Transit Commission (TTC) subway train is staffed by two people: an operator at the front of the train, and a guard at or near the rear of the train (depending on the vehicle) which controls the doors. The guard, who has unilateral control of the train while it is stopped at the station, must be satisfied of passenger safety before he/she engages the interrupt which cuts power to the locomotive wheels.

Line 3 Scarborough (and Line 4 Sheppard as of October 9, 2016) are unique on the TTC network as its trains are operated by one operator at the front of the train, with the dual role of operating the train and controlling the doors. This is due to the shorter length of the cars and train consist, which allow the operator to see the entire length of the platform from his or her position without the need for a guard.

The TTC's future light rail lines will use one-person operation in conjunction with an automatic train control (ATC) system.

Other railways

Most trains services (freight or passenger) within Canada operated with at least a Locomotive Engineer and a Conductor, the conductor being primary responsible for the 'train' rather than the locomotive. Via Rail operate with two Locomotive Engineers and several on board staff and GO Transit in Ontario operates with Locomotive Engineers and what is called a "Customer Service Ambassador" located within the train.

Denmark

A Danish train driver on a S-train looking out of the side window to make sure all the doors are safely closed for departure

In Denmark, the state owned railway company DSB started implementing one-man operation on the commuter rail S-train system in 1975. The S-train system has been completely one-man operated since 1978.[16]

At the start of 2013 DSB also used one-man operated trains on the two small regional rail lines Svendborgbanen and Aarhus nærbane.[17]

As a result of several years of major annual deficits, DSB started implementing one-man operation on several rail lines on 29 June 2013.[18][19] This led to reductions in staff, followed by widespread protest and some small illegal strikes by train drivers, who accused DSB of using rolling stock which was unsafe for one-man operation.[20] The Danish Railway Union stated in 2011 "that one-man operation wasn't their cup of tea".[21]

The lines that were planned to become one-man operated were: Copenhagen-Ringsted, Copenhagen-Kalundborg, Copenhagen-Nykøbing F., Aarhus-Aalbrog, Fredericia-Esbjerg and Roskild-Køge-Ringsted[22] The one-man operation of the railway line Aarhus-Aalborg was implemented using temporary and very manual safety procedures - much to the dissatisfaction of the train drivers.[23] On 17 July 2013 DSB abandoned these temporary manual safety procedures and resumed to operate the Jutlandic regional trains with guards, on the grounds that the safety of their trains was not to be cast in doubt and that this was more important than "whether or not one-man operation was implemented a month or two latter than planned".[23] DSBs preparations of the lines permanent standard procedures for one-man operation did however prove to be more difficult than first anticipated. As of September 2015 DSB is only planning to use one man operation at the local lines north and south of Aalborg - and far from all the way to Aarhus. DSB has also stated that the rest of the remaining timeline for implementing one man operations will be reevaluated[22][24][25] DSB has pointed to a bureaucratic safety approval system with an independent safety assessor as the main reason for the lack of progress.[22]

On 7 June 2013, the Danish Ministry of Transport decided to implement one-man operation on the tendered Coastal Line, which led to the sacking of 50 guards.[26] The one-man operation is set to start from 15 December 2013.[27] Meanwhile, sickness absence among the sacked guards rose to six times the normal levels, resembling "sick-out" strike action. This compelled the train operating company DSB Øresund to offer the sacked guards a "stay healthy bonus" of up to 5000 Danish kroner per month (about US$900 or UK£600).[28] The safety approval of one-man operation on the Coastal Line is part of a joint DSB one-man operation project, which entails that the Coastal Line will not be one-man operated before DSB has managed to obtain safety approval for other lines first.[22] In August 2015 DSB stated that they would reevaluate whether or not they would implement one man operation on the Coastal Line. DSB stated at the same time, that they did not expect one man operation to be implemented on the Coastal Line in 2015.[24]

The trains operated by Arriva on the rural single-track railways of Jutland have been one-man operated since Arriva won a tender to operate the lines in 2003.[29] The small train company Nordjyske Jernbaner which operates in the sparsely populated most northern parts of Denmark also uses exclusively one-man operated trains.[30] The railway companies Regionstog and Lokalbanen, operating the single-track railways of Zealand, use solely one-man operated trains as well.[31][32]

On all Danish one-man operated passenger trains, ticket inspectors still board the train now and then to perform spot checks.[33]

Germany

Classic platform dispatcher with central control - the operated electric switch is connected to the signal at the start of the platform that the train driver can see

The S-Bahn rapid transit system in Berlin and Hamburg were using platform train dispatchers to ensure all doors are closed and a train can safely start for the next section. Although there were a couple of test runs since the 1970s these mass rapid transit systems were the last train systems in Germany to be converted to a one-man operation as rapid transit requires to ensure a minimum time to call at a station especially in rush hours. In Hamburg the "Selbstabfertigung durch den Triebfahrzeugführer" SAT (self-dispatching by the train driver) was first introduced in 2000 and the last station was becoming unmanned in 2006. On the bigger Berlin S-Bahn network the "Zugabfertigung durch den Triebfahrzeugführer" ZAT (train dispatching by the train driver) was introduced in 2006. However it was only used on straight platforms so far.

Since 2014 the Berlin S-Bahn introduces a system where an electronic monitor is in the driver cab. There is a camera on the platform that transmits the images via Wireless LAN to the train and the train has a connection back to the (existing) loudspeakers on the platform. The system was tested since 2007 but due to safety concerns its introduction was held off for several years. With its introducation a platform may be served in one-man operation either by ZAT-oU or the ZAT-FM, being the old "Zugabfertigung durch den Triebfahrzeugführer ohne technische Unterstützung" ZAT-oU (train dispatching by train driver without technical support) or the new "Zugabfertigung durch den Triebfahrzeugführer mittels Führerraum-Monitor" ZAT-FM (train dispatching by train driver with driver cab monitor).[34] Officials pointed out that the one-man operation does even lower the time a train halts on a station - on the busy central lines the train on one side of the platform did often have to wait for the train in the opposite direction on the other side of the platform to be dispatched. Although most of the central lines will be converted to ZAT-FM there will be about 20 stations left in the network that will continue to have platform dispatchers.[35]

Japan

Look up ワンマン in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

In Japan, passenger trains without a conductor are indicated by a green wanman (ワンマン, "one man") sign, often accompanied by a pre-recorded in-car announcement mentioning that the train is a "one man train". Most buses are one-man operations, with an increasing number of subways, including the Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line, which was designed to operate on one-man operation, Toei Ōedo Line, which was one-man operated since its opening in the year 2000,[36] and the Tokyo Metro Marunouchi Line, which became driver-only operated from 2009.[37]

New Zealand

By 1997, more than 90 percent of all trains – both passenger and freight - operated by the then main freight and passenger rail operator in New Zealand, Tranz Rail, had only one person in the loco cab.[38]

Sweden

In Sweden around 2 daily departures on the Swedish part of the Oresundtrain system operated by Veolia Transport is one-man operated. This practice is however only utilized when there is an abrupt shortage of train managers.[39] In 2013 the company's health and safety representative - who (in Sweden) is a train driver appointed by a trade union[40] - deemed it to be an unsafe practice demanding it be stopped.[39]

United Kingdom

On the British railway network around 30% of all passenger services in the United Kingdom are one-manned or 'Driver Only Operated' (DOO).[4] The remaining 70% employ approximately 6,800 Guards.[4] The term 'Guard' is the common name used for the role which in most countries is referred to as a 'Conductor', it's also the name used in the railway's rule book. Many train companies use alternative names for the role (Conductor, Senior Conductor, Train Manager), but the role is mostly the same regardless of operator.

On the UK light railways and tramways, Conductors have all but disappeared in an operational sense and now the term 'conductor' is commonly used for revenue and customer service staff. Historically 'operational' Conductors were the 'norm' on all systems including the London Underground (who used the term 'Guard' like the mainline railway). With exception to the Blackpool system, London Underground and Glasgow Subway – all current UK light rail systems are of modern construction and were built as 'new' for 'One-Man' operation.

British buses also once had 'operational' Conductors on most services, most buses were front engined meaning the passenger saloon door had to be behind the driver's cab. The last buses to have a Conductor are in London on the remaining Routemaster double deck buses, otherwise all UK buses are 'one-man operated' or OMO.

London

All trains on the London Underground are single-manned.[4] Conversion to one-man operation began in 1984 and was completed in 2000.[41]

TFL now operates 100% of its overground network as driver-only trains. The latest conversion was announced in July 2013 on the Gospel Oak to Barking Line.[10] The National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT) challenged the move, claiming passenger safety would be compromised.[10] Transport for London replied that at the time the East London Line, already one-man operated, has one door-related incident for every 7 million passengers, while the section of the network which currently uses conductors has one door-related incident for every 4 million passengers.[10] On 16 August 2013, the RMT called a 48-hour strike over the August Bank holiday weekend.[42][43] According to the RMT, the proposal set forth by Transport for London would imply Driver Only Operations on the whole of the London Overground network and make 130 guards redundant.[42][44] London Overground Rail Operations stated in response that they had given "the RMT assurances on employing conductors in alternative customer service roles and offering a generous voluntary redundancy package to those who want it."[43] According to RMT, the proposals to implement driver only operations are in response to the 12.5% reduction in Transport for London's funding announced in Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne's Comprehensive Spending Review.[43]

England and Wales

By 21 July 2010, Sir Roy McNulty, chair of the major value for money inquiry of the rail industry in the United Kingdom, tabled a scoping report titled Realising the potential of GB rail (2011 & McNulty) commissioned by the Department of Transport (DfT) and the Office of Rail Regulation (ORR). The report recommended that "the default position for all services on the GB rail network should be DOO (driver-only operation), with a second member of train-crew only being provided where there is a commercial, technical or other imperative", in order to reach the overall industry goal of a "30% unit cost reduction" by around 2018(2011 & McNulty 6).[45] The RMT stated that "any proposed extensions of DOO would be fought by the union on grounds of safety and efficiency".[46]

The British Government has proposed the extension of Driver Only Trains as a part of the new Northern Franchise and has left it optional to the new operators of the Trans Pennine Franchise.[47] Additionally it has been proposed for the new Hitachi Super Express Trains which will be in use on the East Coast and Great Western franchises.[48]

In April 2016, drivers belonging to the ASLEF trade union refused to pick up passengers using DOO on the new Class 387 trains on the Gatwick Express route. This is the system currently used on the 10-car Class 442 used on Gatwick Express, but the union claimed that extending this to 12-car trains put too much pressure on the driver and was unsafe. The operators Govia Thameslink Railway took legal action, and the union ultimately dropped the claim.[49]

In the summer of 2016, guards working for Southern and belonging to the RMT trade union went on strike over plans to introduce DOO on more Southern services.

Scotland and Northern Ireland

More than 56% of First ScotRail's trains are one-man operated.[50] When ScotRail launched a plan to implement one-man operations on the newly opened Airdrie-Bathgate Rail Link in 2010, the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers (RMT) staged several strikes, claiming that the system was unsafe.[50][51] ScotRail replied that they had been using one-man operated trains since the 1980s, and that the Class 334 trains planned for the Airdrie-Bathgate line had not even been delivered with a conductor's door panel.[52] The strikes were ultimately ended by the unions, in part because of disagreements within the RMT about which principal stand to take on one-manned operations.[53] Other sources point to a "strike breaker" clause in ScotRail's contract, which enabled ScotRail to draw compensation from Scottish taxpayers during a strike, as another factor in the union's ending of the strikes.[54] Even though the trains are now driven without a guard, a ticket inspector is still present on every train,[50] although the ticket inspectors are paid less than guards.[46]

Current Driver Only / One Man Operations

United States

Boston

On the Boston subway, also referred to as "The T", all three subway lines became completely one-person operated at the end of March 2012.[56] This marked the ending of the gradual implementation of one-man operations that started in 1996 with parts of the subway's shortest line, the Blue Line, continued with the Orange Line in 2010 and ended with the longest line, the Red Line in 2012.[57] According to Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority spokesperson Joe Pesaturo the Carmen's Union "has never embraced" one-man operation.[56]

Baltimore

All light rail lines, and the one subway line, operate on single person operation.

Chicago

In Chicago the city's main rapid transit system - the L - has been using one-man operation on the Yellow Line since its opening in 1964.[58] On October 31, 1993, the Orange Line began operating one-manned trains as well, and this gradually spread to the entire network.[58] As of 1998, the whole system runs with only a single crewman per train[59]

New York City

In the New York City area, most subway trains over 300 feet (91 m) are operated by a two-man crew of a motorman and a conductor.[60]

The following New York City Subway services and rolling stock are used for one-man operation as of November 2013:

Full-time one-man operation:

Part-time one-man operation:

Washington, D.C

The Washington Metro has always operated under the "one man rule" from the opening of the first line in 1976.

Freight trains

Canada

The Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway and Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railway are the only two railways in Canada approved by Transport Canada to run one-man freight trains.[61]

Following the Lac-Mégantic derailment in July 2013 when a one-man Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway train was involved in a major and fatal accident, the Canadian Government issued an emergency order banning one-man freight trains carrying hazardous cargo.[9] This move has been criticised as rash action before the cause of the accident has been uncovered. Critics of the emergency order further pointed to a 1997 "Study of One-Person Train Operations," commissioned by Transport Canada which concluded that it is unlikely that two persons in the cab improves safety.[62]

Denmark

Danish freight trains are usually one-man operated.[63]

Sweden

Swedish freight trains are usually one-man operated.[63]

United Kingdom

Most British freight trains are One Man or Driver Only Operated, certain freight trains do have Guards on board for operational or safety reasons (such as DRS Nuclear Trains).[4]

United States

According to the Federal Railroad Administration, one-man operated freight trains are "very rare" in the United States because it is hard to comply with federal safety regulations with only one person on the train.[9]

In the wake of the Lac-Mégantic derailment in July 2013, Federal Railroad Administrator Joseph C. Szabo demanded that Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway start using two-person train crews in the US.[64] The US has however not issued a ban on one-man-operated freight trains.[65] In July 2013, the 55,000-member Canadian and American Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers and Trainmen stated that they had been opposed to one-man freight trains for safety reasons since the introduction of the idea approximately a decade ago.[11]

References

  1. ↑ Bagnall, Janet (11 July 2013). "Lac-Mégantic investigation: Use of one-person train crew under scrutiny: Transport Canada says MMA one of only two railway companies to operate that way in Canada". The Gazette. Montreal, Quebec. Retrieved 4 August 2013.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 "MTA One-Person Train Operation". Retrieved 2013-08-06.
  3. ↑ Lowe, David (2002), The dictionary of transport and logistics, p. 172
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Sir Roy McNulty - Chairman of the Rail Value for Money Study (May 2011). "Realising the Potential of GB Rail - Final Independent Report of the Rail Value for Money Study - Detailed Report" (PDF). Department for Transport & Office of Rail Regulation. p. 200. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  5. ↑ Transport, Faiveley. "CCTV and passenger information" (PDF). p. 4. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
  6. ↑ "Lokofører: Skal jeg slå passagererne ihjel?" (in Danish). Ekstra Bladet. 2013-06-07. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
  7. ↑ William F. McClellan Deputy Director – Red Line Operations (2011-05-31). "Red Line Single Person Train Operation (SPTO)" (PDF). Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority. pp. 4(a) & 5(b). Retrieved 2013-08-07.
  8. 1 2 "COPENHAGEN S-BANE AUTOMATION STUDY" (PDF). PARSONS TRANSPORTATION GROUP. 2010-02-26. p. 1&35. Retrieved 2013-08-08.
  9. 1 2 3 "No more one-man crews on oil trains". Maine Sunday Telegram. Pressherald.com. 2013-07-23. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  10. 1 2 3 4 "Warning over passenger safety as union vows to fight driver only trains plan (From East London and West Essex Guardian Series)". Guardian-series.co.uk. 2013-07-19. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  11. 1 2 Sambides, Nick (2013-07-17). "One-man train crews are unsafe, says union negotiating with Montreal, Maine and Atlantic Railway — Penobscot — Bangor Daily News — BDN Maine". Bangordailynews.com. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Post, C. Robert (2007). Urban Mass Transit: The Life Story of a Technology. Westport: Greenwood Press. pp. 74, 75, 77 & 78. ISBN 0-313-33916-3. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
  13. ↑ Newman, Andy (May 7, 2010). "Not the First Time the 'Dead-Man' Switch Did Its Job". The New York Times. Retrieved May 7, 2010.
  14. 1 2 3 4 Connor, Piers (2006). "The Underground Electric Train - 17. Deadmen and Tripcocks" (PDF). Underground News. London Underground Railway Society (November): 1 & 2. Retrieved 2013-09-14.
  15. ↑ "Victorian railways history". Mark Bau. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  16. ↑ "DSB: studiemateriale - milepaele-i-jernbanens-historie - S-tog år for år" (in Danish). Dsb.dk. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  17. ↑ "Kystbanen får kniven: Færre afgange og mindre personale" (in Danish). Ekstra Bladet. 2013-06-07. Retrieved 2014-04-01.
  18. ↑ "DSB: Enmandsbetjente tog er kommet for at blive" (in Danish). Jyllands-posten.dk. 2013-07-18. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  19. ↑ "Medlemsinformation nr. 14_2013/enmandsbetjening igen" (in Danish). Dansk Jernbaneforbund. 2013-06-28. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  20. ↑ "Togene kører igen ved Københavns Hovedbanegård" (in Danish). Dr.dk. 2013-06-28. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  21. ↑ "På bekostning af trygheden" (PDF). Jernbane Tidende (in Danish). Dansk Jernbaneforbund. 2013-01-15. p. 10. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  22. 1 2 3 4 "DSBs plan om enmandsbetjente tog koster dyrt" (in Danish). Berlingske.dk. 2014-03-31. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
  23. 1 2 "Ikke altid nemt at blive enige, men der må ikke herske tvivl om sikkerheden" (in Danish). DSB.dk. 2013-07-17. Retrieved 2014-03-31.
  24. 1 2 "Status vedr. enmandsbetjening i Nordjylland og på Kystbanen" (PDF) (in Danish). DSB. 2015-08-18. Retrieved 2015-09-19.
  25. ↑ "Enmandsbetjente tog er stadig kun en plan" (in Danish). Berlingske.dk. 2015-03-20. Retrieved 2015-03-21.
  26. ↑ "DSB betaler togførere for at møde" (in Danish). berlingske.dk. 2013-07-09. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  27. ↑ "Minister om Kystbanen: Vi sparer 25 millioner" (in Danish). ekstrabladet.dk. 2013-07-09. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  28. ↑ "DSB betaler togførere for at møde" (in Danish). berlingske.dk. 2013-07-09. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  29. ↑ "Arriva: Kun gode erfaringer med solotog" (in Danish). Epn.dk. 2013-07-10. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  30. ↑ "Salgssteder" (in Danish). Nordjyske Jernbaner. Retrieved 2013-11-02.
  31. ↑ "Regionstog - Billetter og priser" (in Danish). Regionstog.dk. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  32. ↑ "lokalplan 2006-2015" (PDF) (in Danish). HUR Trafik. 2013-04-15. p. 9. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  33. ↑ Thorlacius, Per; Jens Clausen (2010-08-17). "Scheduling of inspectors for ticket spot checking in urban rail transportation" (PDF). DSB S-tog, Dept. of Production Planning. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  34. ↑ Die S-Bahn führt neues Zugabfertigungssystem ein // 2014 // S-Bahn Berlin GmbH
  35. ↑ ZAT-FM-System - S-Bahn will auf 50 Bahnhöfen die Aufsicht abschaffen - Berlin - Berliner Morgenpost
  36. ↑ Eisuke Isobe, Jinko Cho, Itaru Morihisa, Toshihiko Sekizawa & Ryuji Tanaka (1999). "Linear Metro Transport Systems for the 21st Century" (PDF). Hitachi Review. Hitachi. 48 (3): 148. Retrieved 2013-09-16.
  37. ↑ 東京メトロ丸ノ内線全線 ワンマン運転実施のお知らせ. Tokyo Metro Press Release. March 28, 2009
  38. ↑ "Study of One-person Train Operations". 5.2.2 Tranzrail (New Zealand). Transport Canada (May): 28. 1997.
  39. 1 2 "Kräver stopp för ensamma lokförare" (in Swedish). Sekotidningen. 2013-09-29. Retrieved 2013-09-11.
  40. ↑ "Skyddsombud/arbetsmiljöombud". Arbetsmiljöverket.
  41. ↑ "London Underground Glossary". trainweb.org. Retrieved 2013-09-05.
  42. 1 2 RMT (2013-08-16). "RMT announces London Overground strike action". RMT. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
  43. 1 2 3 BBC (2013-08-16). "London Overground guards to strike on bank holiday". BBC. Retrieved 2013-08-17.
  44. ↑ Britain: Rail unions betray London Overground conductors - World Socialist Web Site
  45. ↑ Roy McNulty (15 May 2011). "Realising the potential of BG rail - Report of the Rail Value for Money Study - Summary Report (aka: the McNulty report)" (PDF). p. 61. ISBN 978 1 84864 123 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2014. Retrieved 5 August 2013.
  46. 1 2 20 May 2011 (2011-05-20). "McNulty: union declares war on DOO proposals". Railnews. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  47. ↑ RMT launches Northern Rail and Transpennine Express campaign - rmt
  48. ↑ Union demand assurances from First Group on the future of train buffet services and staff (From Wilts and Gloucestershire Standard)
  49. ↑ "Aslef drops legal action and accepts 12-car Gatwick trains".
  50. 1 2 3 "Second rail strike likely as talks break down". BBC News. 2010-02-24. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  51. ↑ Thursday 8 April 2010 (2010-04-08). "Travellers face more rail strikes after talks collapse". Herald Scotland. Archived from the original on 9 April 2010. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  52. ↑ 19 March 2010 (2010-03-19). "Fresh peace moves in long-running ScotRail dispute". Railnews. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  53. ↑ Henderson, Damien (2012-12-20). "Rail union U-turn on strike". Herald Scotland. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  54. ↑ Henderson, Damien (2012-05-22). "Row over 'strike breaker' clause in ScotRail contract". Herald Scotland. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
  55. ↑ FCC Train Dispatch - YouTube
  56. 1 2 "MBTA cuts down to single-operator Red Line trains". Metro. 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2013-08-07.
  57. ↑ William F. McClellan Deputy Director – Red Line Operations (2011-05-31). "Red Line Single Person Train Operation (SPTO)" (PDF). Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority. p. 5. Retrieved 2013-08-07.
  58. 1 2 ""L" To the Southwest Side: A New Way to Midway". Retrieved 2013-08-19.
  59. ↑ "History". Retrieved 2013-08-19.
  60. ↑ "Why U.S. Transit Systems Are Still So Far Away From Converting to Driverless Trains". The Atlantic Cities. 2012-06-09. Retrieved 2013-08-07.
  61. ↑ Deveau, Scott (2013-07-13). "Short-line rail operators, the 'special teams' of the railway industry, defend safety record". Financial Post. Retrieved 2013-08-19.
  62. ↑ "Study of one-person train operations - Summary". Transport Canada. 1997. Retrieved 2013-08-06.
  63. 1 2 "Mogens kom forbi - Britt og toget" (in Danish). TV2 Nord. 2011-08-31. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  64. ↑ "U.S. railroad chief 'shocked' at Maine company's single-person train crews". Main Sunday Telegram. 2013-08-23. Retrieved 2013-09-01.
  65. ↑ Federal Railroad Administration (August 7, 2013). "FRA Emergency Order No. 28, Notice No. 1". Federal Register. United States Government Printing Office. 78 (152): 48218. Retrieved September 2, 2013.
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