Protochronism

Dacian-themed mural on a Communist-era apartment block in Orăştie

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Leaders Petru Groza Ana Pauker Ion Gheorghe Maurer Chivu Stoica Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej Nicolae Ceaușescu Elena Ceaușescu
Ideology National Communism July Theses Protochronism Ceaușescu's cult of personality
Policies Collectivization Nationalization Literacy campaigns Five-Year Plans De-Stalinization Systematization 1980s austerity
Culture Daciad Cîntarea României Cenaclul Flacăra Obsessive decade
Repression Censorship Danube – Black Sea Canal Reeducation Bărăgan deportations Tămădău Affair Pitești prison Sighet prison
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Protochronism (anglicized from the Romanian: Protocronism, from the Ancient Greek terms for first in time) is a Romanian term describing the tendency to ascribe, largely relying on questionable data and subjective interpretations, an idealised past to the country as a whole. While particularly prevalent during the regime of Nicolae Ceauşescu, its origin in Romanian scholarship dates back more than a century.

The term refers to perceived aggrandizing of Dacian and earlier roots of today's Romanians. This phenomenon is also pejoratively labelled "Dacomania" or sometimes "Thracomania," while its proponents prefer "Dacology."

Overview

In this context, the term makes reference to the trend (noticed in several versions of Romanian nationalism) to ascribe a unique quality to the Dacians and their civilization.^[1] Protochronists attempt to prove either that Dacians had a major part to play in Ancient history, or even that they had the ascendancy over all cultures (with a particular accent on Ancient Rome, which, in a complete reversal of the founding myth, would have been created by Dacian migrants).^[2] Also noted are the exploitation of the Tărtăria tablets as certain proof that writing originated on proto-Dacian territory, and the belief that the Dacian language survived all the way to the Middle Ages.^[2]

An additional - but not universal - feature is the attempted connection between the supposed monotheism of the Zalmoxis cult and Christianity,^[3] in the belief that Dacians easily adopted and subsequently influenced the religion. Also, Christianity is argued to have been preached to the Daco-Romans by Saint Andrew, who is considered, doubtfully, as the clear origin of modern-day Romanian Orthodoxy. Despite the lack of evidence to support this, it is the official church stance, being found in history textbooks used in Romanian Orthodox seminaries and theology institutes.^[4]

History

The ideas have been explained as part of an inferiority complex present in Romanian nationalism,^[5] one which also manifested itself in works not connected with Protochronism, mainly as a rejection of the ideas that Romanian territories only served as a colony of Rome, voided of initiative, and subject to an influx of Latins which would have completely wiped out a Dacian presence.^[6]

Protochronism most likely came about with the views professed in the 1870s by Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu,^[7] one of the main points of the dispute between him and the conservative Junimea. For example, Hasdeu's Etymologicum magnum Romaniae not only claimed that Dacians gave Rome many of her Emperors (an idea supported in recent times by Iosif Constantin Drăgan),^[8] but also that the ruling dynasties of early medieval Wallachia and Moldavia were descendants of a caste of Dacians established with "King" (chieftain) Burebista.^[9] Other advocates of the idea before World War I included the amateur archaeologist Cezar Bolliac,^[10] as well as Teohari Antonescu and Nicolae Densuşianu. The latter composed an intricate and unsupported theory on Dacia as the center of European prehistory,^[11] authoring a complete parallel to Romanian official history, which included among the Dacians such diverse figures as those of the Asen dynasty, and Horea.^[11] The main volume of his writings is Dacia Preistorică ("Prehistoric Dacia").

After World War I and throughout Greater Romania's existence, the ideology increased its appeal. The Iron Guard flirted with the concept, making considerable parallels between its projects and interpretations of what would have been Zalmoxis' message.^[12] Mircea Eliade was notably preoccupied with Zalmoxis' cult, arguing in favor of its structural links with Christianity;^[13] his theory on Dacian history, viewing Romanization as a limited phenomenon, is celebrated by contemporary partisans of Protochronism.^[14]

In a neutral context, the Romanian archaeology school led by Vasile Pârvan investigated scores of previously ignored Dacian sites, which indirectly contributed to the idea's appeal at the time.^[15]

In 1974 Edgar Papu published in the mainstream cultural monthly Secolul XX an essay titled "The Romanian Protochronism", arguing for Romanian chronological priority for some European achievements.^[16] The idea was promptly adopted by the nationalist Ceauşescu regime, which subsequently encouraged and amplified a cultural and historical discourse claiming the prevalence of autochthony over any foreign influence.^[17] Ceauşescu's ideologues developed a singular concept after the 1974 11th Congress of the Communist Party of Romania, when they attached Protochronism to official Marxism, arguing that the Dacians had produced a permanent and "unorganized State".^[18] The Dacians had been favored by several communist generations as autochthonous insurgents against an "Imperialist" Rome (with the Stalinist leadership of the 1950s proclaiming them to be closely linked with the Slavic peoples);^[19] however, Ceauşescu's was an interpretation with a distinct motivation, making a connection with the opinions of previous protochronists.^[20]

The regime started a partnership with Italian resident, former Iron Guardist and millionaire Iosif Constantin Drăgan, who continued championing the Dacian cause even after the fall of Ceauşescu.^[21] Critics regard these excesses as the expression of an economic nationalist course, amalgamating provincial frustrations and persistent nationalist rhetoric, as autarky and cultural isolation of the late Ceauşescu's regime came along with an increase in protochronistic messages.^[22]

No longer backed by a totalitarian state structure after the 1989 Revolution, the interpretation still enjoys popularity in several circles.^[23] The main representative of current Protochronism is still Drăgan, but he is seconded by the New York City-based physician Napoleon Săvescu. Together, they issue the magazine Noi, Dacii ("We Dacians") and organize a yearly "International Congress of Dacology".^[24]

Dacian script

A Dacian script or the work of an illiterate potter?

Dacian alphabet is a term used in Romanian Protochronism for pseudohistorical claims of a supposed alphabet of the Dacians prior to the conquest of Dacia and its absorption into the Roman Empire. Its existence was first proposed in the late 19th century by Romanian nationalists, but has been completely rejected by mainstream modern scholarship.

In the opinion of Sorin Olteanu, a modern expert at the Vasile Pârvan Institute of Archaeology, Bucharest, "[Dacian script] is pure fabrication [...] purely and simply Dacian writing does not exist", adding that many scholars believe that the use of writing may have been subject to a religious taboo among the Dacians.^[25] It is known that the ancient Dacians used the Greek and Latin alphabets,^[26] though possibly not as early as in neighbouring Thrace where the Ezerovo ring in Greek script has been dated to the 5th century BC. A vase fragment from the La Tène period (Fig., right), a probable illiterate imitation of Greek letters, indicates visual knowledge of the Greek alphabet ^[27] during the La Tène period prior to the Roman invasion. Some Romanian writers writing at the end of the 19th century and later identified as protochronists, particularly the Romanian poet and journalist Cezar Bolliac, an enthusiast amateur archeologist,^[28] claimed to have discovered a Dacian alphabet. They were immediately criticized for archeological^[29] and linguistic^[30][31] reasons. Alexandru Odobescu, criticized some of Bolliac's conclusions.^[32] In 1871 Odobescu, along with Henric Trenk, inventoried the Fundul Peşterii cave, one of the Ialomiţei caves (See the Romanian Wikipedia article) near Buzău. Odobescu was the first to be fascinated by its writings, which were later dated to the 3rd or 4th century.^[33] In 2002, the controversial^[34] Romanian historian, Viorica Enăchiuc, stated that the Codex Rohonczi is written in a Dacian alphabet.^[35] The equally controversial^[36] linguist Aurora Petan (2005) claims that some Sinaia lead plates could contain unique Dacian scripts.^[37]

Controversies

Even if many of the critics addressed to so called "Dacomania" are correct, some of them are very arguable and not supported by facts, but mostly by new political views (same thing "protochronists" were accused before) not in line with the search for historical truth. One of the critics of protochronism is for example of Hungarian-American origin (Katherine Verdery) and so she is inclined to follow the (very doubtful and considered worldwide more biased and less professional due to debate of Transylvania history) Hungarian historiography line of attack against Daco-Roman continuity. Above that she is not a specialist in ancient history, linguistics, archaeology or military history, the most important subjects debated by protochronism, and her published studies shows that ^[38]

As well, the main critic of protochronism in Romania, Lucian Boia (lector of History University at Bucharest), was heavily criticized by two PhD historians, both members of Romanian Academy, Ion Aurel Pop, rector at Babes-Boliay University from Cluj-Napoca and professor Ioan Scurtu.^[39]

Professor Ion Aurel Pop basically demolish all Boia assertions in the book "Istoria, adevarul si miturile - Note de lectura" published in 2002, and in several journal articles,^[40] and professor Scurtu did the same in his critics of Boia works

Lucian Boia was accused as well that during Communist period he followed strictly the history line imposed by the Party as he was the head of communist propaganda department from Bucharest University.^[39]

He started to become a critic just after 1989, when he became related with Soros Foundation which published his books at their publishing house in Budapest, Hungary. He was supported later on political bases, and he was advanced directly lector, jumping over pre-lector position as it was normal, and received grants for studies abroad (both before 1989, when agreement and preparation from former political secret police, Securitate, was needed for such, and after).^[39]

He was compared with Mihai Roller, the chief historian imposed by Soviets during 50's, famous for his attempts to rewrite national history and who was promptly eliminated from mainstream history circles even since the 60's. He was criticized as well because he is just a historian of ideas and not a specialist in historical domains he is talking about (like ancient history, medieval history, ethnology, archeology or linguistics), so his opinion in those subjects doesn't hold the necessary weight.

Modern-day equivalents

• Celtomania^[41]
• Germanomania^[41]

• Albanian nationalists claim that the Albanians descend from the ancient Pelasgians, the semi-mythical original inhabitants of Greece, as a way of establishing primacy over other Balkan peoples, particularly the Greeks.^[42] In Communist Albania, an Illyrian origin of the Albanians (without denying Pelasgian roots^[43] a theory which has been revitalized today^[44]) played a significant role in Albanian nationalism,^[45] resulting in a revival of given names supposedly of "Illyrian" origin, at the expense of given names associated with Christianity. The protochronist ideology developed in Romania was directly borrowed by the communist regime in Albania.^[46]
• Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein frequently appealed to imagery and rhetoric that assumed a direct link between the modern-day country and Sumer or Babylon.
• The "Venetic theory" (Slovene: Venetska teorija) of Slavic settlement of Eastern Alps forwarded by Slovene authors Jožko Šavli, Matej Bor and Ivan Tomažič.^[47]

Notes

References

• Mircea Babeş, "Renaşterea Daciei?", in Observator Cultural, August 2001
• Lucian Boia, Istorie şi mit în conştiinţa românească, Bucharest, Humanitas, 1997
• B. P. Hasdeu, Ethymologicum Magnum Romaniae. Dicţionarul limbei istorice şi poporane a românilor (Pagini alese), Bucharest, Minerva, 1970
• (Romanian) Mircea Martin, "Cultura română între comunism şi naţionalism" (II), in Revista 22, 44 (660)/XIII, October–November 2002
• (Romanian) Ovidiu Şimonca, "Mircea Eliade şi 'căderea în lume'", review of Florin Ţurcanu, Mircea Eliade. Le prisonnier de l'histoire, in Observatorul Cultural
• Katherine Verdery, National Ideology under Socialism. Identity and Cultural Politics in Ceauşescu's Romania, University of California Press, 1991. ISBN 0-520-20358-5

External links

• www.dacii.ro: A site displaying prominent characteristics of Romanian Protochronism.
• www.dacia.org: A site connected with Săvescu.
• Monica Spiridon's essay on the intellectual origins of Romanian Protochronism.
• Historical myths, legitimating discourses, and identity politics in Ceauşescu's Romania (Part 1), (Part 2)
• Tracologie şi Tracomanie (Thracology and Thracomania) at Sorin Olteanu's LTDM Project (SOLTDM.COM)
• Teme tracomanice (Thracomaniacal Themes) at Sorin Olteanu's LTDM Project (SOLTDM.COM)