Queen mothers (Africa)

Queen mothers with their regalia.
Queen mothers with their regalia.

Queen mothers (also Queenmothers) are leaders and women of power in West Africa. There is no "one size fits all" description of a queen mother.[1] However, generally, queen mothers play an important role in local government and "wield social power and influence."[2] The amount of power they currently hold has been diminished since pre-colonial times.[3] Queen mothers are an important part of the Akan tradition which is based on matrilineal descent.[4] They are also found in the Ashanti Kingdom which is part of the Akan ethnic group.[5] In areas of Ghana where the Akan culture is prominent, each town has a chief and a queen mother who rule alongside the modern political system.[6] Queen mothers have also been recorded in the tradition of the Pabir in north Nigeria,[1] as part of the Benin culture,[7] and in the Krobo area.[3] In other parts of Africa, such as in Uganda, the term queen mother is also used to describe women in power.[8] Today queen mothers are seeing a resurgence in power and influence in Africa.[9]

History

During the pre-colonial days, West Africa was "organized around the authority of chiefs/kings/queen mothers." Queen mothers were once considered important political figures of power who commanded respect in the Cape Coast area prior to the colonial era.[9] Akan queen mothers were considered autonomous rulers.[10] Among the Akan, there are male and female "counterparts" in all aspects of the political hierarchy.[1] Queen mothers had all jurisdiction over women and any issue that involved both men and women, such as rape, adultery and marital conflict.[1]

Colonists coming to Africa from Europe, negotiated only with the men and the power of the queen Mothers was diminished.[9] In addition, queen mothers in West Africa were not recognized as important and were often referred to in historical documents as "sisters" of the men in power by missionaries and colonists.[3] Queen mothers, along with other women in Africa under the colonial rule, lost "social, religious, constitutional, and political privileges and rights."[11]

Post-colonial governments "continued with policies that undermined women's traditional authority."[3] Women's absence in politics, especially traditional institutions has created an unequal distribution of power and resulted in women's "concerns and rights not being adequately addressed."[12]

In 1957, Ghana's independence did not include queen mothers in politics, again only working with the chiefs, who were male.[9]

In 1988 The Ashanti Queen Mother Association was formed and has around forty-four women leaders from the Ashanti and attends to issues relating to women.[13]

The 1992 Constitution of Ghana included Article 277 which defines chieftancy.[14] Article 277 defines a chief as a person who has been properly nominated from the correct lineage and "enstooled, enskinned or installed as a Chief or a Queen Mother in accordance with the relevant customary law and usage."[15] In the summer of 2010, the National House of Chiefs in Ghana finally included 20 queen mothers.[16]

In 2006, the United Nations Children's Fund started working with queen mothers to help support welfare efforts for women and children in West Africa.

More recently, areas such as the Upper West Region of Ghana, where the tradition of queen mothers has not been practiced, have been encouraged to "reinstall" queen mothers by advocates of women's empowerment. More women have been installed as queen mothers in the northern part of Ghana which has raised the status of women in the area.[12]

In 2014, the Chieftaincy Minister in Ghana, Henry Seidu Danaa, declared that queen mothers' participation in the House of Chiefs was constitutional.[17]

Description and duties

Queen mother's stool.

The title of queen mother is an English word used to collectively describe women in traditional West African leadership roles.[1] The Akan and Ashanti people use the term ohemmaa, meaning "female ruler."[1] In the Pabir tradition, they are known as maigira, meaning "female monarch."[1] In the Benin tradition, queen mothers are known as iyobas.[18] The office of the queen mother is also known as the "stool."[1] In Ghana, queen mothers are selected from the royal family of each town and village.[9] It is the head of the royal family, the elders, who choose both the chief and the queen mother, who may be related to one another.[4] The royal families are made up of the first settlers of the area.[9]

Akan tradition

In the Akan tradition, queen mothers rule alongside the chief or the king in their area.[7] Queen mothers are considered the spiritual head of their community and the keeper of genealogical knowledge.[6] They have veto power of the king or chief and may appoint their own ministers.[7] Queen mothers also select candidates for the next chief if his "stool" is vacant.[3] Queen mothers preside over courts which hear cases about disputes brought to the court by women.[6] In their courtrooms, queen mothers and their court officials "wield power over disputants."[6] When necessary, queen mothers can "assume full control of central authority."[1] In some instances, they have "acted as war leaders."[19]

Benin tradition

The kingdom of Benin did not have queen mothers until after the end of the fifteenth century when there was a conflict for the throne.[20] During the conflict, women gained power and could be established as queen mothers.[20] Queen mothers in the Benin tradition are, like British monarchy, queen mothers of the king.[21] Benin queen mothers had a great deal of power and were venerated as the protector of the king.[18]

Krobo tradition

Among the Krobo, there is the "paramount queen mother" and several "lesser" queen mothers ruling under her.[3] Krobo queen mothers have less power than do the queen mothers of the Akan tradition.[3] The tradition of the queen mother may have been adopted from the Akan.[22]

The Krobo select queen mothers through a secret election by the elders.[3] After her selection, she is notified of her new role by having white clay smeared on their arm.[3] A ritual installation is performed where she taught, advised, given a new name and then presented to the chief.[3]

Krobo queen mothers are seen as "mothers" of their community and while there is an emphasis on women's affairs for the queen mother, she helps both men and women.[22]

Pabir tradition

Pabir queen mothers are expected to become celibate.[1] The Pabir queen mother's role is ceremonial, and her "true power lies in her ability to foment opposition against the king."[22]

Queen mothers today

Queen mothers today continue to adapt to the changing world and the position has "remained vital."[3] Queen mothers participate in business[23] and recognize the contributions of midwives.[24] Queen mothers have helped support breast cancer awareness in Ghana.[25] In order to raise awareness of their role in Africa, four queen mothers from Ghana toured the United States.[16]

Some queen mothers have expressed that their authority is not as respected as much as the authority of the male chiefs.[19] While many queen mothers and other women in traditional roles in Ghana have faced obstacles for creating lasting change for women, they continue to organize in order to be represented "in formal political processes."[26] Queen mothers are pursuing educational opportunities, like the legal literacy training at libraries in Ghana[27] or workshops.[28][29][30]

In Ghana, queen mothers have started the Manya Krobo Queen Mothers Association (MKQMA) in order to help children who have been orphaned because of HIV and AIDS.[31][32] The group was started by Nana Okleyo.[22] Studies of the association's work in the Manya Krobo District found that it was a good role model for how to address orphans in West Africa, though it did have some limitations.[33] There are approximately 370 queen mothers involved in MKQMA.[3] In addition, the MKQMA, under the leadership of Manye Esther, has developed HIV/AIDS prevention programs and helped support more than 400 orphans.[3]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Farrar, Tarikhu (1997). "The Queenmother, Matriarchy, and the Question of Female Political Authority in Precolonial West African Monarchy". Journal of Black Studies. 27 (5): 579–597. JSTOR 2784870. (subscription required (help)).
  2. ↑ "Queen Mothers - Advocates for Change". West and Central Africa. UNICEF. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Steegstra, Marijke (2009). "Krobo Queen Mothers: Gender, Power, and Contemporary Female Traditional Authority in Ghana". Africa Today. 55 (3): 105–123. doi:10.2979/aft.2009.55.3.104. Retrieved 3 January 2016 – via Project Muse. (subscription required (help)).
  4. 1 2 Resource Information Center (18 October 1999). "Ghana: Information on the "Queen Mother" Tradition among the Kwahu People of Ghana". Refworld. United States Bureau of Citizenship and Immigration Services. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  5. ↑ Stoeltje, Beverly J. (1997-06-01). "Asante Queen Mothers". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 810 (1): 41–71. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1997.tb48124.x. ISSN 1749-6632.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Obeng, Samuel; Stoeltje, Beverly J. (2002). "Women's Voices in Akan Juridical Discourse". Africa Today. 49 (1): 21–41. doi:10.1353/at.2002.0008. JSTOR 4187478. (subscription required (help)).
  7. 1 2 3 "The Power of a Queen Mother". Queen Mothers. Saint Michael's College. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  8. ↑ Rwakabukoza, Rebecca (3 December 2015). "Uganda: Tracing Uganda's History Through Stories of Motherhood". All Africa. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mistiaen, Veronique (3 December 2015). "Meet the Queen Mothers: 10,000 amazing women taking back power in Africa". The Telegraph. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
  10. ↑ Ephirim-Donkor, Anthony (2015). The Making of an African King: Patrilineal and Matrilineal Struggle among the Effutu of Ghana. University Press of America, Inc. p. 237. ISBN 9780761865049.
  11. ↑ Rothenberg, Paula S. (2006). Beyond Borders: Thinking Critically About Global Issues. Worth Publishers. pp. 117–118. ISBN 9780716773894.
  12. 1 2 "Northern Traditional Councils - Role of Queen Mothers". Ghana News Agency. 5 August 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  13. ↑ Muller, Louise (2013). Religion and Chieftaincy in Ghana: An Explanatin of the Persistence of a Traditional Political Institution in West Africa. LIT Verlag. p. 228. ISBN 9783643903600.
  14. ↑ Fordjour, Asante (11 March 2010). "The Devolution of the Ghanian Parliament". Ghana Web. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  15. ↑ Owusu-Mensah, I; Asante, W.; Osew, W.K. (September 2015). "Queen Mothers: The Unseen Hands in Chieftaincy Conflicts Among the Akan in Ghana: Myth or Reality?". Journal of Pan African Studies. 8 (6): 1–16. Retrieved 3 January 2016 – via EBSCO. (subscription required (help)).
  16. 1 2 29 November 2012. "African Queen Mothers Visit Atlanta". Atlanta Daily World. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  17. ↑ "Inclusion of Queen-mothers in House of Chiefs is Constitutional - Dr. Danaa". My Joy Online. 1 February 2014. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  18. 1 2 Bortolot, Alexander Ives. "Idia: The First Queen Mother of Benin". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  19. 1 2 Owusu-Kwarteng, Nana K. W. B. (2005). "Asante Traditional Leadership and the Process of Educational Change". OhioLINK. Ohio.gov. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  20. 1 2 Bedard, Arianne. "Idia: A Benin Legend". West African Art and Culture. St. Michael's College. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  21. ↑ Bedard, Arianne. "Queen Mothers of Benin". West African Art and Culture. St. Michael's College. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  22. 1 2 3 4 Drah, Bright B. (2014-01-01). "Queen mothers, NGOs, and orphans: Transformations in traditional women's political organization in an era of HIV and orphanhood in Manya Klo, Ghana". Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian Journal of Geography. 68 (1): 10–21. doi:10.1080/00291951.2013.871331. ISSN 0029-1951 – via EBSCO. (subscription required (help)).
  23. ↑ "MASLOC Extends Credit Facility to Queenmothers, Market Women". Ghana Web. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  24. ↑ "Queenmothers Foundation Launches Package to Recognise Dedicated Midwives". GBC Ghana. 30 November 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  25. ↑ "Ghana to Become Regional Hub for Breast Cancer Educ.". Peace FM. 23 December 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  26. ↑ Kaye, Julie (22 June 2009). "Kathleen M. Fallon, Democracy and the Rise of Women's Movements in Sub-Saharan Africa". Canadian Journal of Sociology. Retrieved 4 January 2016 – via HighBeam Research. (subscription required (help)).
  27. ↑ Elliot, Carol (1 July 1998). "A Library Fellow in Equatorial West Africa". Information Outlook. Retrieved 4 January 2016 – via HighBeam Research. (subscription required (help)).
  28. ↑ "Upper East Queen Mothers to fight Child Marriages". Ghana Web. 8 December 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  29. ↑ "Queen Mothers Attend Workshop on Land Tenure Issues". Ghana Business News. 1 March 2015. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  30. ↑ "Chiefs, Queen Mothers and Supporting Staff of Traditional Councils Receive Training". Government of Ghana. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  31. ↑ "Queen Mothers: Every Child is Our Child". Unitarian Universalist Association. Retrieved 3 January 2016.
  32. ↑ Family Health International (2004). Final Report for the Implementing AIDS Prevention and Care (IMPACT) Project in Ghana (PDF) (Report). USAID. p. 29.
  33. ↑ Lund, Ragnhild; Agyei-Mensah, Samuel (2008-04-18). "Queens as Mothers: the role of the traditional safety net of care and support for HIV/AIDS orphans and vulnerable children in Ghana". GeoJournal. 71 (2-3): 93–106. doi:10.1007/s10708-008-9145-9. ISSN 0343-2521.

External links

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